Note: this is part of an electronic companion that supplements Kevin Greene's book Archaeology: an introduction (1995); click on the title to start from the home page.
'Discovery is pointless without recording, but observers (ancient or modern) only record what they see, and what they see is determined by what they consider to be significant. ... Perhaps the greatest contrast with the past is that fieldwork today is rarely directed at a single site. It usually forms part of a comprehensive study of an area selected either because it is threatened with destruction, or because it offers potential answers to questions generated by wider archaeological research.' (p. 37)
Ordnance Survey Background and Brief History, including part of an early (1811) hand engraved map of Dorchester, Dorset, showing prehistoric hillforts and other antiquities. You can compare it with the modern OS map of the same area to see how sites have been added.
REMOTELY CONTROLLED EQUIPMENT IN MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY A new and impressive explanation of discovery underwater from the Institute of Archaeology at the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology (Norwegian University of Science and Technology) NB: this page launches some additional programs that might not work on your viewer!
'The simplest (and oldest) procedure is fieldwalking, which relies upon the observation of minor fluctuations in the character of the ground surface, and, where possible, the recognition of ancient artefacts lying upon it. If fieldwalking is conducted systematically the results can be analysed to reveal significant patterns of finds.' (p. 38)
Hand-held data collection and GPS logging A review of some equipment from Internet Archaeology, with a helpful glossary of terms (Nick Ryan, Jason Pascoe, David Morse: University of Kent at Canterbury)
'Ideally, a database should be created to serve a number of different purposes, including further research by individuals who may not have been involved in its collection. 'Rescue' archaeology has provided a stimulus to this kind of recording, and many countries now have a policy of maintaining Sites and Monuments Records on a regional basis.' (p. 41)
Historically & Archaeologically Important Hedgerows New changes in planning regulations are described in this resource: A Project for the Preparation of Constraint Mapping of Historically & Archaeologically Important Hedgerows in Northamptonshire (HEDGEROWS REGULATIONS (COUNTRYSIDE 1997 No.1160): GLENN FOARD & DAVID HALL, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE HERITAGE)
Enhancing the record through remote sensing The application and integration of multi-sensor, non-invasive remote sensing techniques for the enhancement of the Sites and Monuments Record. Heslerton Parish Project, N. Yorkshire, England (Dominic Powlesland, James Lyall and Daniel Donoghue: Internet Archaeology)
Monuments at Risk Survey (MARS) project School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth University : '...a survey to see how many archaeological sites we have left, how many are still in good condition, how many are still in fair shape, how many have been lost, and how sites have come to be as we see them today' (T Darvill/G Wainwright)
Highland Archaeology Service '... identifies, protects, promotes and interprets the archaeological heritage of the Highlands for the benefit of residents and visitors'. This is the public presentation of an organisation that runs a Sites and Monuments Record with details of over 15,000 known archaeological sites and features of all types and periods from the earliest times to the 2Oth century in Scotland.
'The greatest single contribution to fieldwork and recording has undoubtedly been made by aerial photography. Besides giving a bird's-eye view of surviving sites, aerial photography can, in favourable circumstances, record details of buried sites revealed by discolourations in the overlying soil or vegetation.' (p. 41)
Aerial Archaeology Research Group (AARG)"...provides a forum for the exchange of ideas and information for all those actively
involved in aerial photography, photo interpretation, field archaeology and landscape
history. This also includes the use of aerial photography
in defining preservation policies for archaeological sites and landscapes."
Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing A general introduction (not aimed just at archaeologists) with a detailed 'contents' section (Shannon Crum, University of Texas)
Aerial Archaeology Introductory information and discussions, primarily from Southwestern U.S.A.
3.1 Visible sites
'Aerial photography provides a useful supplement to observations made during fieldwork on visible earthworks. Isolated features may become more coherent when seen in an overall view, and new features not easily noticed on the ground may be revealed... The best conditions are provided by low light, because it emphasises irregularities by highlighting bumps and filling hollows with deep shadow.' (p. 41)
A Pilot's View Archaeological sites in Baden-Wurttemberg
Israel: Archaeology from the Air Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs page, featuring graphical images from birdseye views, of over 20 sites of archaeological significance in Israel, with explanatory captions
3.2 Invisible sites
'...aerial photography has been much more important in providing information and discoveries about sites that have been levelled, and are therefore unlikely to be spotted during normal fieldwork. Even when sites are discovered by fieldwalking, after ploughing has scattered finds on the surface, their form and extent are rarely evident. Such sites are commonest in areas of heavy agricultural exploitation, where different settlement patterns and field systems may have come and gone several times during the evolution of the modern landscape. Their detection relies on a number of phenomena that influence vegetation or the soil.' (p. 42-3)
THE PAST REVEALED 'In 1928, a pilot flying over Caistor noticed a regular grid pattern of pale parched corn in the green barley fields inside and around the Roman town.' The photograph is accompanied by photographs of the excavation of stone structures, and forms part of A virtual tour of Caistor Roman Town, Norfolk. (John Peterson, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK)
Cranborne Chase Bournemouth University: details of geophysical surveys and excavations, related to aerial and ground-level photographs of the sites
'It must he stressed that these instruments are only suitable for use on sites whose location is already known or suspected, for their operation is much too time-consuming to be applied 'blind' to large areas. As with aerial photography, their main purpose is to distinguish anomalies, hopefully of human origin, from the natural subsoil. Geophysical prospecting devices are useful wherever details need to be checked, or where trial excavation would be an inefficient method of locating buried features.' (p. 46)
Notre Dame Archaeology Field School '...teaches traditional field methods and geophysical remote sensing techniques for site investigation.'
The WROXETER HINTERLAND Project University of Birmingham Field Archaeology Unit study of the Roman town of Viroconium Cornoviorum (present-day Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, county Shropshire). '...innovative in its use of modern IT - GIS and Image Processing, for example - and of large scale geophysical surveying and remote sensing, to complement traditional archaeological techniques such as excavation and field walking.'
Knowlton henge complex Some very impressive results from the Neolithic henge complex of Knowlton, Dorset, by University of Bournemouth
Cranborne Chase Bournemouth University: details of geophysical surveys and excavations, related to aerial and ground-level photographs of the sites
Guiting Power, Gloucestershire Interesting results from a prehistoric site in the northern Cotswolds - Project Information from Dr Alistair Marshall
Newstead Project: the Roman fort of Trimontium - links to geophysics and site-plans
'When an electric current is passed through the ground between electrodes, the resistance to its flow may be measured. A current will pass relatively easily through damp soil, but drier compact material such as a buried wall or a cobbled road surface create higher resistance. Resistivity surveying is rather cumbersome, because it normally requires a number of electrode probes (usually four) to be pushed into the ground at precise intervals for each reading.' (p. 47)
4.2 Magnetic surveying
'Magnetometers also detect deviations from the general background of the subsoil, in this case indicated by variations in its magnetic field. Several aspects of past human occupation cause suitable anomalies. ... Magnetic surveying does not require probes in the ground; the instrument can be carried along a line or a grid by its operator, and it is generally preferred to resistivity for this reason when conditions are favourable.' (p. 48)
''Metal detectors' are not only popular with members the public who regard their use as an innocent hobby, but also with professional treasure-hunters who plunder sites for profit. The fine dividing line between these types of users accounts for the bad press metal detectors have received from archaeologists. Most types penetrate the soil only to a very limited extent, but they have been used by archaeologists to locate dispersed metal artefacts - for example a hoard of Roman coins scattered by ploughing.' (p. 49)
TreasureNet Lots of commercial location devices at a site created and maintained by Marc Austin (who endorses the Treasure Hunter's Code Of Ethics)
4.4 Radar and sonar location devices
'A recent development with considerable potential for the examination of buried sites in future is the use of radar, but a disadvantage is that it performs best on very dry deposits. It works in the same way as sonar scanning, but electronic (rather than sonic) signals are transmitted into the soil, and bounce back into a receiver.' (p. 50)
'Probing or augering are also useful for testing the depth of soil, or to remove samples to gain some idea of buried stratification.' (p. 50)
Prospecção Fosfatica Prospection techniques including phosphate analysis (V. Dias ,1995, revista Cyberarqueólogo Português, vol. I - in Portuguese, with illustrations)
'Landscape archaeology places humans into a broad context where they are seen to have been in a state of continuous interaction with the environment; sometimes their actions helped to shape the physical form of the natural world, normally their lives were shaped by it to a large extent.' (p. 51)
'Thus, landscape archaeology now requires a thoroughly integrated approach, involving both written and material evidence. ... Landscape archaeology is also inseparably connected with environmental archaeology, notably in the context of the soils and surface deposits that have influenced agriculture and the exploitation of other resources for food-production or crafts and industries. ... Anthropological studies and local history both underline the view that human settlement is a very complex subject with an indisputable social component.' (p. 51-3)
Ancient Landscapes, Information Systems and Computers Since 1987 John Peterson has carried out research in the School of Information Systems at the University of East
Anglia, Norwich, UK into information systems used in the ancient world for the control of land. Some fascinating presentations of up-to-date methods of analysing landscape features.
'...fieldwork today is rarely directed at individual sites. It is normally part of a regional study, devoted to answering questions generated by wider archaeological research. The most successful projects have been aimed at the analysis of long-term changes in settlement patterns, seen in the perspective of environmental factors that influenced, or were affected by, human exploitation.' (p. 53)
E-scapes Electronic resources for the study of ancient Greek landscapes
Pylos Regional Archaeological Project Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati. Follow the links to interesting maps and studies of pottery (etc).
'Computers that combine large data-storage capacity with fast mathematical processors and a high quality of graphic display ... are very suitable for running programs known as Geographical Information Systems. ... As with other forms of computer-based data handling, an initial investment of time and energy in recording data in an appropriate form is repaid by the flexibility that it allows at the analytical stage.' (p. 56-7)
The WROXETER HINTERLAND Project University of Birmingham Field Archaeology Unit - follow the links to an exemplary series of images
Geographical Information Systems From the Discovery Programme (Heritage Council of Ireland): 'Irish Archaeology is breaking new ground with GIS technology Mooghaun landblock, North Munster Project
'Archaeological fieldworkers now require many skills, some of them traditional and subjective, others based on new scientific techniques. They also need to be experts in the use of documentary evidence and aerial photographs, besides understanding geology and geography. These skills have important implications for the process of excavation, which is examined in the next chapter. Our ability to investigate ancient landscapes and environments, without resorting to the destructive process of digging into sites, means that no excavation work should ever be carried until a programme of fieldwork and documentary research has been completed. It is impossible to ask valid questions about an individual site without understanding its place in the historical and natural environment.' (p. 57)
Please remember that all paragraphs of text from my book included in this web site are copyright, and should not be quoted without acknowledgement or copied without my permission.
