Note: this is part of an electronic companion that supplements Kevin Greene's book Archaeology: an introduction (1995); click on the title to start from the home page.
'So much of the evidence left behind by past cultures has been destroyed that archaeologists have a duty to employ whatever methods are available to extract the maximum possible information from what still survives. ... In practice, there are few questions about the past that would not benefit from investigation with the help of the natural or biological sciences; indeed, many questions may only be answered with the assistance of scientific methods. One of the principal educational virtues of archaeology is that it is truly multi-disciplinary, and that it defies all attempts to pigeon-hole it either as a science or as one of the humanities.' (p. 130)
TEACHING ARCHAEOMETRY 'This site is designed to be used as a resource for the teaching of archaeometry and archaeological science at universities and, in
some cases, secondary schools. It includes general background on the field of archaeometry, course syllabi for several
university classes, useful web sites, and a forum on curriculum and training issues.' (Program on Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC)).
Ancient Monuments Laboratory English Heritage - lots of useful links as well as information on its own activities
'Scientific analysis offers many insights into ancient objects, but, as with dating methods,
there must be full cooperation and communication between archaeologists and laboratory scientists to ensure that the most appropriate methods are applied to suitable samples. There is little point in conducting analyses without clear questions in mind, and those questions should be the result of archaeological research.' (p. 130)
MURR Archaeometry Lab A very useful source from the Nuclear Archaeology and Geochemistry Group, University of Missouri. Follow the links!
Archaeometry Group Bonn University: 'The general aim of archaeometric research is to collect facts by natural sciences which are inaccessible by solely archaeological methods. We use several methods of material analysis to get informations about e.g. ancient production techniques or provenance of material remains'
"the lithics site" a resource for archaeological lithics analysts (Hugh Jarvis)
2.1 Microscopic examination
'Not all questions of scientific analysis require complex analytical methods; traditional study by microscope allows many aspects of stone or metal artefacts to be examined. ... Archaeologists now use microscopes in use-wear analysis of artefacts, in particular tools, for patterns of wear or damage on working surfaces may suggest how a tool was used. ... Visual examination in use-wear studies is enhanced dramatically by a scanning electron microscope (SEM), which projects a magnified image onto a screen.' (p. 131)
Department of Geological Sciences University of Missouri: '...research with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) is taking place on some archaeological ceramics'
Petrology
'Petrology involves the examination under a microscope of thin sections cut from samples of stone. Many minerals may be identified by eye, and distinctive rocks are recognisable without the help of spectrographic analysis to measure their elements.' (p. 131-2)
'...it should become a rule that analysis and metallography (and hardness testing) should always be combined, since a full interpretation of one is impossible without the other.' (Peter Northover) (p. 132)
'The basic aim of the analysis of an artefact is to identify the materials from which it was made, and to measure accurately the relative quantities of its constituent minerals or chemicals. When this information is interpreted it may be possible to define the sources of the raw materials, to suggest a place of manufacture, and to deduce techniques involved in the manufacture of an object. Analysis is not restricted to objects, however; structures such as buildings offer many possibilities for the analysis of stone, bricks and mortar.' (p. 133)
MURR Archaeometry Lab This page has a good description of the objectives of characterisation of obsidian and ceramics
Corning Museum of Glass (New York). Follow links to the chemistry and technology of this important raw-material
The Northeast Lithic Database Workgroup (NELD) - follow links or go directly to Pilot Database on Volcanic Felsites: 'The goal of the data base is to characterize specimens from known prehistoric quarry sites on the basis of: 1) Macroscopic features, 2) petrographic characteristics, and 3) geochemical composition.' Excellent maps and graphs.
'This volcanic glass occurs widely in both the New and Old Worlds... Like flint, it has excellent working properties for chipping, flaking and grinding into tools with sharp cutting edges. ... Most analyses have attempted to study patterns of prehistoric trade by identifying sources that supplied sites.' (p. 134)
Obsidian Hydration Analysis Service 'OHAS is an archaeological laboratory investigating prehistory using a suite of methods. These include, but are not limited to: transmitted light microscopy, reflected light microscopy, macroscopic analysis, satellite navigation (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), laser technology, and a hefty computing facility.'
Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory A commercial service at Corvallis, Oregon, USA: '...offers a variety of different analytical services related to obsidian trace element characterization ("sourcing") studies, obsidian hydration studies, and obsidian source studies, primarily in the context of archaeological research.'
International Association for Obsidian Studies '... find out about the IAOS, explore technical information related to obsidian studies, or use the Archaeology and Web Surfing page as a launching point to many other useful and intriguing Internet locations.'
Bronze Age metallurgy
'Bronze usually consists of copper alloyed with tin, and varying percentages of other metals. The composition of an artefact made of copper or bronze is usually examined by a technique known as atomic absorption spectrophotometry. ... The quantity of an element is indicated by the amount of light absorbed by atoms of that element in the sample, to an accuracy as precise as five parts per million if necessary; this allows trace elements to be measured along with the principal metals.' (p. 135)
'The use of information derived from the analysis of metals is not restricted to the prehistoric period. Roman metallurgy has been extensively studied through examinations of ores, ingots, coins and manufactured objects.' (p. 136)
Isotopic analysis
'Individual elements can be examined in more detail to establish which isotopes (elements with an abnormal number of electrons) are present, and in what proportions. ... Studies of stable isotopes now assist in the study of Greek and Roman architecture and sculpture.' (p. 136)
2.3 Provenance by date
'Like obsidian characterisation studies, accuracy depends on how many potential sources have been sampled and tested.' (p. 137)
'Although conservation is one of the most important aspects of archaeological science
experienced by visitors to sites and museums, it is easily overlooked.' (p. 137)
Internet Resources for Heritage Conservation, Historic Preservation and Archeology National Center for Preservation Technology and Training: 'The Center, created by Congress, is an interdisciplinary effort by the National Park Service to advance the art and science of historic preservation in the fields of archeology, historic architecture, historic landscapes, objects and materials conservation, and interpretation.' (US Department of Interior)
3.1 Ancient objects
'Whenever an ancient object is removed from the ground during an excavation it is immediately placed at risk, for the stable environment that has protected it from total decay since its burial has been lost. ... It is essential that an exact identification of the composition and structure of an object is made before conservation begins.' (p. 137)
Restoring ancient Egyptian artifacts... by computer. Hans van den Berg: 'One of my hobbies is to restore Egypt's heritage using computers. With modern photo editing software like Adobe Photoshop
it is possible to perform restorations on ancient Egyptian artifacts without even touching them. It is done by retouching the
artifact on photo, a"virtual restoration" so to speak.'
Nautical Archaeology Program Texas A&M University Conservation Research Laboratory, with links to the La Salle project
'Newly excavated structures soon suffer from exposure, and require permanent supervision if they are to be left on display. ... Buildings that have been visible for hundreds of years are increasingly vulnerable, for ancient stonework is easily damaged by air pollution in modern urban environments.' (p. 139)
'The tendency to treat environmental archaeology as a separate discipline obscures the diversity of specialist skills that it draws upon. For example an archaeologist engaged in studies of the early Stone Age requires a detailed knowledge of the plant and animal resources available to hunter/gatherers, an understanding of the prevailing climatic conditions, and information about human diet, diseases and life expectancy.' (p. 139)
SALT...made the world go round M. R BLOCH ARCHIVE - the significance of SALT [NaCl] through the period 1000 BC up to the Industrial Revolution. Lots of links to sea-level, vulcanology, climate, etc.
4.1 The concept of 'sites'
'Few techniques used in environmental archaeology are restricted to individual 'sites' or excavations; humans are just as much part of a wider ecological system as other animals or plants. Broader aspects, such as climate and vegetation, provide a background setting for human activity, and the primary sources of evidence for these aspects do not come from excavations of habitation sites.' (p. 140)
Centre for Wetland Archaeology at the University of Hull. 'Its main research is concentrated on the Humber Wetlands Survey, a large scale survey programme funded by English Heritage.' Links to interesting data from a region.
4.2 The survival of environmental evidence
'Archaeology in the New World has always taken a close interest in environmental aspects of sites because of the many different ways that native American cultures developed in diverse settings, from tropical rain-forests to temperate woodlands, and from plains to deserts. The superb preservation of organic remains on settlement sites in arid desert conditions in the Southwest of the United States made the observation and examination of environmental evidence an obvious part of archaeology, in contrast to most European sites, where organic remains had disappeared through decay.' (p. 140)
Environmental
report from Pompeii 'One of the aims of the 1995 research at Pompeii was to collect bioarchaeological remains in order to address specific questions about the environmental setting of the city, the quality of the changing urban environment and the provisioning of the urban population.'
'Long-term climatic change has been a fundamental factor in human development, seen at its most dramatic the during periods of extensive glaciation that have been known to geologists for more than 200 years. ... While long-term change is obviously important from an archaeological point of view, short-term fluctuations may have had an important impact on human life in the past - especially in farming communities.' (p. 141)
NOAA Paleoclimatology Program National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), USA - lots of useful links to Climate Modeling, Fauna, Paleoceanography, Ice Cores, Paleovegetation, Insecta and Tree-rings
Climate, Culture, and Catastrophe in the Ancient World Dramatic claims for the implications of environmental data in the Near East: 'This page presents a summary narrative of and links to geological and paleoclimatalogical data bearing on the remarkable events of 3000 BCE (calendar years BC), when urban/technological society began. Most of our data comes from referenced scientific literature, although some of the studies, such as of the Mesopotamian delta, and certain sea level interpretations, are the author's.'
'Geology and geomorphology are essential for understanding the present landscape and its past configurations, along with changes in sea level, erosion, and the deposition of new land by sedimentation or volcanic activity. This information not only influences our concepts about the environmental context of human activities in the past, but also provides vital insights into the likelihood of finding sites and artefacts.' (p. 141)
6.1 Soil science
'Surface deposits and outcrops of rock, combined with evidence for rivers and lakes, dictate the forms of vegetation and animal life available to hunter-gatherers or early farmers. An understanding of soils adds further detail, for soils with differing colours, textures and other characteristics are formed and changed both by natural and human activities.' (p. 141)
Prospecção Fosfatica Prospection techniques including phosphate analysis (V. Dias ,1995, revista Cyberarqueólogo Português, vol. I - in Portuguese, with illustrations)
OCR Procedure for Dating Archaeological Features 'The effect of the biochemical degradation of charcoal and soil humic material can be measured by the ratio of the total carbon to the readily oxidizable carbon in the sample. This ratio is called the Oxidizable Carbon Ratio, or OCR.' (Douglas S. Frink)
'Nineteenth-century botanists concentrated on large fragments of plants, but the focus in the twentieth century moved to microscopic pollen grains. Large items such as seeds and pips remain important, however, for they not only reveal the existence of plant species but also give insights into the collection and processing of wild fruits or crops from domesticated plants. ... The prospects for future research are expanding now that methods for extracting ancient DNA from ancient seeds or cereal grains are beginning to succeed.' (p. 143)
'Since palynology is able to monitor general changes in climate and vegetation over long periods, it is of considerable interest to climatologists, ecologists, botanists and geographers as well as to archaeologists. Samples of pollen taken from cores bored from deep peat bogs or lake sediments are stratified, with the earliest part lying deepest. A deposit that has formed over thousands of years should reflect overall changes from tundra to forest or from forest to farmland, and indicate fluctuations in the prominence of individual plant species.' (p. 144)
'Besides their value for dating, tree-rings provide a continuous annual record of climate. The correlation between modern meteorological records of temperature and precipitation and the width of individual rings seems sufficiently close to allow them to be used to make estimates of conditions in the past before such records began, but caution is still advised. At the opposite end of the scale, the pattern of tree-rings in an individual trunk is influenced by the
location of the tree.' (p. 146)
Quaternary Entomology Page Colby College, Maine: 'The study of subfossil beetles (Class Insecta, Order Coleoptera) is becoming an important tool in understanding past environmental change. Virtually any non-marine sediment that has identifiable organic remains will include remains of insects, and many of these will be beetles.'
8.1 Animal bones
'The principal task of a zoologist confronted with a collection of ancient bones is to identify the species that are represented. ... Another important task is to estimate the number of animals involved. ... The approximate ages of individual animals may be ascertained by examining the state of ossification of particular bone structures, the eruption of teeth in jaw bones, and the amount of wear on teeth. Sex is more difficult to establish, but statistical studies of large samples of bone sizes may help to divide them into groups...' (p. 146-7)
Zooarchaeology Laboratory Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Birmingham (with links to other relevant WWW sites)
Faunmap Database An electronic database documenting the Late Quaternary distribution of individual mammal species for seven different time periods during the last 40,000 years in the United States, based on 2919 palaeontological and archaeological sites.
Boxgrove, Sussex Lots of good photographs of animal remains from a Palaeolithic site - see below for human remains found there.
'The most important aspect of the study of bones is that the nature of an excavated context must always be looked at very closely. Bones found on sites reflect living populations of hunted or domesticated animals in different ways, and a sample recovered from an excavation may not be representative of the whole site. ... Studies of DNA recovered from animal bones offer great potential for confirming difficult identifications of species or sex, and for studying the processes of domestication by examine the genetic links between wild and domesticated animals.' (p. 147-9)
8.2 Fish bones
'Sieving and flotation techniques have improved the recovery of bones from small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. Unlike all the others, fish bones appear on archaeological sites on dry land as a direct result of human activity.' (p. 150)
Fish remains and humankind '...is the general title for papers from the Fourth meeting of the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ) fish remains working group. Internet Archaeology has placed four papers from this conference in Issue 3.'
8.3 Shells
'Some were brought to settlements from the sea shore and discarded after their contents had been eaten, and are informative about diet and the exploitation of marine resources. Others belonged to land molluscs that lived on the site; many of these are extremely small and can only be separated from samples of soil under laboratory conditions, but they provide valuable insights into the local environment.' (p. 150)
'Evidence for early prehistoric people is very fragmentary, especially the fossil bones from the geological deposits in East Africa that are so important for tracing the emergence of modern species. ... Where soil conditions allow, burials allow complete skeletons to be recovered for study, and this offers the possibility of establishing the cause of death, which demands the expertise of a pathologist. The study of well-preserved bodies is like an excavation itself, involving X-ray examination, dissection, and the study of all the materials encountered, whether fibres of clothing, skin tissues, or food remains.' (p. 152)
Hominid ethology 'Hominid Paleo-ethology is the discipline which tries to reconstruct the behaviour of fossil hominids.' University of Barcelona
Bringing Fossils Back to Life 'In The Primate Evolution and Morphology Group at The University of Liverpool we are using state-of-the-art computer techniques to reconstruct the way our early ancestors walked, and the kinds of food they ate.'
Egyptian mummy 3-D reconstruction using computer tomography (Clive Baldock et al.)
9.1 Genetics
'Work is progressing rapidly on the recovery of DNA and blood proteins from bones or (when preserved) other body tissues. At a basic level, DNA indicates the sex of a deceased individual - not always possible from skeletal remains. It also offers the possibility of studying whether bodies found in a cemetery come from related family groups. Like existing studies of blood groups, this information might prove useful on a broader scale in charting ethnic continuity or change over periods when artefacts seem to indicate the arrival of external influences.' (p. 154)
'...arid conditions ensure the preservation of fibrous matter that has passed through the human digestive system, including fragments of bone, skin, scales, hair, feathers and meat, as well as pieces of insects, parasites and their eggs. Plant fibres and seeds are also found, together with microscopic pollen and 'plant opals' (distinctively shaped silica crystals formed by some plants). Even soft tissues from plants and animals can be extracted and identified by careful processing and sieving of re-hydrated coprolites.' (p. 154)
'Simple statistics are useful for checking almost any statements that involve comparisons, such as claims that the dimensions of a type of artefact change over time, or that settlement sites of a particular period tend to occupy one particular kind of soil. ... An awareness of probability and correlation also leads to a better understanding of sampling. ... Scientific analyses carried out for purposes such as the characterisation of obsidian or clay produce bewildering columns of figures that can only be clarified by means of statistical methods.' (p. 155)
'Besides their involvement in statistics, laboratory science and cartography, the principal function of computers in archaeology is to record, store and retrieve large quantities of information, such as excavation records or museum archives; this is a question of management rather than science. ... However, geographical information systems (GIS) are a rather more scientific application of computing that combines maps, environmental and archaeological data with statistical calculations to produce graphic visualisations of relationships between these categories of information. GIS promises to provide major advances in the analysis and interpretation of ancient landscapes.' (p. 156)
Computer Applications in Archaeology 'CAA is an international conference bringing together archaeologists, mathematicians and computer scientists. Its aims are to encourage communication between these disciplines, provide a survey of present work in the field and to stimulate discussion and future progress.'
The Center for the Study of Architecture 'CSA was established to provide an archival home for computer models of architectural monuments and archaeological sites. Scholars are encouraged to contribute their models to the CSA archive where they will be preserved, made available to other scholars, and migrated to new systems as required by changing technology.' Lots of information about CAD. (Harrison Eiteljorg, II: see also The Archaeological Data Archive Project
.)
Internet Archaeology 'we have set ourselves the task of publishing papers of high academic standing which also utilise to the full the potential of electronic publication'
Ashmolean Museum Summary Catalogue of the Anglo-Saxon Collections
Hampshire County Council Museums Service '...holds records of the objects in its collections in a computer database. The database uses MODES software, used by very many museums in the UK.'
'One welcome by-product of a scientific approach to archaeology has been the increasingly frequent use of practical experiments to test hypotheses. ... The strict definition of an experiment employed in the scientific world is rarely fulfilled in an archaeological context, for many factors are difficult to control or measure, let alone replicate on another occasion. Even when they are demonstrations or simulations rather than true experiments, they may still produce valuable information.' (p. 156)
11.1 Artefacts
'Experimental archaeology is a useful companion to scientific analysis in the study of artefacts, for their composition and structure may suggest methods of manufacture. ... Besides experiments concerning manufacture, the functions and efficiency of tools have also been examined. Again, scientific analyses may provide relevant information, and experiments are frequently carried out in association with microscopic use-wear analysis.' (p. 156)
11.2 Sites and structures
'Large-scale structures such as ships, buildings or earthworks may also be subjected to experiments and simulation studies, normally by means of reconstructions based on evidence derived from excavations. ... The chief advantage of simulation studies is that they demand a much closer analysis of excavated traces than might otherwise be carried out.' (p. 157)
Pharaonic Village 'Just a few miles from the center of Cairo is a time machine waiting to take you on an fantastic journey to the days of the Pharaohs, a time brought to life by an incredible group of actors and actresses, faithful and exact reproductions of buildings, clothing, and lifestyles; and of course, the redoubtable Dr. Hassan Ragab. Dr. Ragab has worked for over twenty years to create the most precise living recreation of the golden days of Pharaonic Egypt, and now he invites you to join him on this fascinating journey to the past.' (The Ministry of Tourism, Egypt)
Butser Ancient Farm '...is a replica of the sort of farm which would have existed in the British Iron Age circa 300 BC.'
Guiting Power, Glos Prehistoric site in the northern Cotswolds with experiments
Plan of Rome A model of Rome in the fourth century AD (Paul Bigot, Universite de Caen)
Virtual reality model of Stonehenge English Heritage in partnership with Intel and Superscape Virtual Reality Solutions: 'You need Netscape 2.0 running on a PC but Superscape provide the free plug-in VR viewer necessary to view the virtual world.'
Diana Nemorensis Reconstruction project to recreate the Roman emperor Caligula's ship excavated in Lake Nemi, Italy
'Archaeologists and historians ignore scientific evidence at their peril if they wish to understand the chronological framework of the past, or the material resources available to ancient societies, and the natural environments where they lived. The development of new techniques, and the inevitable errors that they will contain at the outset, provides an opportunity for interaction between science and archaeology when disagreements arise, for both must re-examine their own particular forms of data and analysis.' (p. 158)
Please remember that all paragraphs of text from my book included in this web site are copyright, and should not be quoted without acknowledgement or copied without my permission.
